Low‑Literacy Workers in Most Automation‑Prone Sectors

Native‑born OECD employees, 2023 (millions)

Note: Workers counted only if they (a) have low literacy (≤ PIAAC Level 2) and (b) work in a sector where ≥ 60 % of tasks are judged automatable (Frey & Osborne 2013). Together these 10 sectors employ 107 million vulnerable workers in the OECD.
Chart: Gareth ManningSource: OECD Labour Force Statistics 2023 (native‑born employment by sector); Skills Outlook 2024 – Annex Table 3.2 (share of adults at or below PIAAC Level 2 literacy); automation‑risk probabilities from Frey & Osborne 2013 (> 0.60 threshold)Get the dataCreated with Datawrapper