Figure 3. Engagement with the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) 

Level of participation at the Third Belt and Road Forum (2023), as well as the status of their Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with China.

This chart visualizes the positions of individual European countries surveyed in the report. The EU's approach (no MoU, no official delegation sent) cannot be displayed spatially on the map. Description of categories: High-level official: attendance by a prime minister, president, or minister. Lower-rank official: representatives below ministerial level. No official delegation sent: no delegation formally designated for the forum, though embassy staff may have attended. No information: no publicly available data on participation. Active BRI MoU refers to agreements with China that remain in force and produce tangible outcomes. Inactive BRI MoU includes agreements that have been terminated, expired, or formally remain in place but are no longer delivering concrete results. No pattern: no BRI MoU.
Chart: Elcano Royal InstituteSource: compiled by authors